Examining The Implications Of Process

Modern finding-making guard brass (DAMS) engine room is often in any case needed for complex dreary, with recent enquiry barter for more than interconnected DAMS advancementes. However, scholars tend to take dis co-ordinated approaches and disagree on whether coherent or semipolitical finale-making operationes forget in more stiff stopping point outcomes. In this tuition, the authors check these discerns by first exploring some of the competing theoretical arguments for the outgrowth- cream- military capability similitudeship, and then running game these kins through with(predicate) experiential observation development entropy from a crisis answer schooling use of goods and services using an capable federal agent-based DAMS.In contrast to earlier search, findings indicate that sage decision requirees atomic number 18 not effective in risks get windations, and that political decision processes whitethorn negatively put to treat both solut ion pick and decision military capability. These results supply falsifi fitted evidence to confirm prior un set uped arguments that receipt election is an pregnant mediating factor among the decision-making process and its durability. The authors conclude with a word of the implications of these findings and the finishing of agent-based framework DAMS technologies for donnish research and practice.Keywords Agent Software, Agent Technology, Decision back Systems (ADS), Distributed Decision Making Systems, Knowledge Management, certificate Management, Strategic Planning design Strategic decision-making ( no-count) involves the methods and practices organizations use to interpret opportunities and threats in the surroundings and then collapse retort decisions (Shirtwaists &038 Grant, 1985). Modern decommissioning support organization (DAMS) technology is DOI 1 0. 4018/just. 0100701 01 often as easy needed for complex poor, with recent research calling for more inte grative DAMS approaches (Moral, Foregone, Cervantes, Carried, Guppy, &038 Agleam, 2005 Phillips-Wren, Moral, Foregoing, &038 Guppy, 2009). Such DAMS technologies offer the type of rich and all- healthy research technology littorals with a high school degree of external and midland validity as well as reliability required for incorporated decision support (Moral et al. , 2005 Ill, Duffy, Whit- Copyright 0 2010, lance Global. write or distributing in impress or electronic forms without written permission of lancet Global is prohibited. planetary Journal Of Decision Support System Technology, 2(3), 1-15, July-September 2010 field, Bayle, &038 McKenna, 2009 Linebacker, De Spain, McDonald, Spencer, &038 Clottier, 2009 Mustachios &038 Susann, 2009 Phillips-Wren et 2009). Conditions of doubtfulness in highly turbulent surrounds (e. G. , crisis espouse), by record, upgrade complicate the SAD process, and may limit decision making specialty (Ramirez-Marquee &038 Afar, 2009). At i ssue is the presumed need for speed of response where logic dictates that a satisfactory decision that is made quickly is superior to an optimal decision made as well as late.Two of the most ballparkly accepted, and widely employed decision making processes in these contexts are political behavior and procedural rationality (Frederickson &038 Mitchell, 1984 Hart, 1 992 Eisenhower &038 Kickback, 1992 doyen &038 Sherman, 1993 Hart &038 Binary, 1994 Reader, 2000 Hough &038 White, 2003 Elba &038 Child, 2007). ROR research advocates that political processes impart be more effective in these contexts, and that rational decision processes will be less effective in runny milieus (Frederickson &038 Mitchell, 1984).Subsequent research considered the potential Of processes in high velocity environments and advocated that rational decision-making processes will allow for faster response and will be more effective than political decision-making processes in these contexts (Bourgeois &038 E isenhower, 1 988 Eisenhower, 1989). Hart (1992) later expanded on these arguments to develop a framework for session-making processes involving a variety of forms stemming from political or rational bases, and also argued that rational approaches should relate positively to potency, time more political approaches should not.Collectively, the books on the forte of these SAD processes crossways a variety of settings is in conflict as some studies suggest that rational decision-making processes will be positively related to effectiveness (Bourgeois &038 Eisenhower, 1988 Eisenhower, 1989 Hart, 1992) and political decision-making processes will not be effective (Hart, 1 992), turn Others advocate for political decision- aging processes and against rational decision-making processes (Frederickson &038 Mitchell, 1984).Given this conflict, and the fact that these differences are generally unresolved empirically, one contribution of this study is that we try on the effectiveness impl ications of political and rational SAD processes. Through doing so, we offer some clarification and resolution of the self-contradictory predictions and findings of Frederickson and Mitchell (1984), Bourgeois and Eisenhower (1988), and Hart (1992). Further, bit the inclusion off mediating grapheme for response choice is well theorized, it is also largely un running gameed empirically in prior work.Therefore a further contribution of this study is that we also seek to take into visor this mediating use of goods and services of choice on decision effectiveness. In this study we name and address some(prenominal)(prenominal) specific research questions 1) Does adaptation in the decision-making process result in variation in response choice 2) Does variation in response choice result in variation in decision effectiveness and 3) Can we also trace the effectiveness of distinct SAD processes as mediated through particular response choices?Since centering can influence the SAD pro cesses, question troika is likely to be of more come to than question woo. However, if we only look at the grade relationship between SAD processes and effectiveness (I. E. , doyen &038 Sherman, 1996), we competency be attributing differences in effectiveness to process variation when these variations did not true(a)ly influence choices. gum olibanum, we need to adequately discern which SAD processes are more effective in these situations and create the most effective outcomes.Addressing these questions helps to crystallise the integrated influences of process and choice on strategic decision-making effectiveness. This paper proceeds as follows 1) We review related research on SAD, and leverage prior possibility to develop hypotheses for an integrated process-choice-effectiveness SAD place 2) We study the determine and hypotheses through empirical synopsis of entropy from a crisis response training exercise using an agent-based framework decision support system technol ogy 3) We redeem and discuss the results Of our analyses in relation to the baffle and hypotheses Copyright 0 201 0, GIG Global.Copying or distributing in print or electronic September 2010 3 and 4) We conclude with a discussion of our findings along with implications for practitioners and future academic research. Theory development Prior work by dean and Sherman (1993, 1 996) offers an integrated decision-making stumper, for framing this study of SAD process-cooperativenesss. Their work take cares the assumptions at a lower placelying the relationship between decision- making processes, response choices, and SAD effectiveness.The model proposes that variation in decision-making process (political or rational) will produce dissimilar response choices, which result in variation in SAD effectiveness. However, empirical testing of their model is limited to the relationship between political and rational decision-making processes and variation in effectiveness alone, excluding t he intermediate response choice arable.As the effectiveness mediating implications of the response choice intermediate variable are thereby unexamined, we blossom forth and examine dean and Chairmans (1996) model to clarify the conflicting arguments in the prior SAD literature. We do this through examining the panoptic model with the inclusion of the mediating relationship of response choice through our application to an extreme decision-making context (crisis response).Our approach is as follows 1) We extend doyen and Chairmans (1996) strategic decision-making relationship and effectiveness model of variation in process, response choice, and effectiveness by expanding heir effectiveness model to include the potential mediating personal effects of intermediate choices and 2) We then examine the competing arguments for process effectiveness in this context from Frederickson and Mitchell (1984), Bourgeois and Eisenhower (1 988), and Hart (1992). In doyen and Chairmans (1996) model variation in the strategic decision-making process (e. . , governmental or shrewd approaches) produce variation in response choice, resulting in variation in effectiveness. The effectiveness outcomes therefore forecast on the future(a) 1) The strategic decision-making process utilised, and 2) The response scheme choices implemented. In order to clarify the conflicting dominant arguments in the literature for process effectiveness under uncertainty, as well as test the theorized mediating role of choice, we develop several base-line hypotheses to be roughly legitimate with the previous literature.Replicating doyen and Chairmans (1996) model theory 1 form In strategic decommissioning process will be related to variation in effectiveness. Examining the sub elements of the implied Dean and Sherman (1996) model dead reckoning 2 form in strategic decommissioning process will be related to variation in response choice. possibleness 3 Variation in response choice will be related to variation in effectiveness.To examine the full model as proposed by Dean and Sherman (1996), which proposes a mediating relationship but only examines the send relationship, we distinguish between the direct effect of SAD process on effectiveness (HI) and a mediating relationship acting through response choice. Whereas, Dean and Chairmans (1996) original model has choice as endogenous to the strategic decision-making and effectiveness relationship, we model response choice as an intermediate step and consider this as an e research laboratoryorateness of the strategy decision-making and effectiveness relationship.We therefore derive speculation 4 to examine whether response choice has both a mediating and direct effect Examining the full Dean and Sherman (1996) model Hypothesis 4 Variation in strategic decommissioning process and variation in response choice will be related to variation in effectiveness. Copyright C 2010, GIG Global. Copying or distributing in print or electr onic 4 International Journal of Decision Support System Technology, 2(3), 1-15, To examine the conflict in the literature regarding the inconsistency among the Frederickson and Mitchell (1984) andBourgeois and Eisenhower (1988) propositions for uncertain and high velocity environments, as well as the Hart (1992) propositions for effectiveness by type of decision-making process, we develop hypotheses abdominal aortic aneurysm and b Hypothesis AAA In highly turbulent environments, rational number decision-making processes should be positively related to effectiveness, while Political decommissioning processes should not reserve a positive relationship with effectiveness (Bourgeois &038 Eisenhower, 1 988 Hart, 1992).Hypothesis b In highly turbulent environments, Rational decision-making processes should be negatively related to effectiveness, while Political consummating processes should have a positive relationship with effectiveness (Frederickson &038 Mitchell, 1984). analytical co nsiderations Study context Crisis events (I. E. , innate(p) disasters, act of terrorism, etc. ) are environments characterized by alter levels of turbulence and ambiguity (National focusing on Terrorist Attacks, 2004).While government organizations differ from those in the private sector, research in the management field on SAD may be applicable to government organizations dealing with crisis events. For example, the core undertaking of organizations is the creation and/or maintenance of a fit between the organizations congenital strengths and capabilities and the demands placed on them by their environments.Government organizations must also draw upon unique(p) resources and capabilities across various departments and levels of government to act to challenges in their environments. Similarly, the levels of turbulence and ambiguity sacrifice in a government agency operating(a) environment may also be direct contributors to the difficulties inherent to SAD in these contexts . The nature of the environmental pressure, turbidity, and outcome implications make this a unique and repugn operating environment.Prior related work on this topic from other handle includes the development of homeland defense strategy for the White House (KUDUS, 2004), the theoretical account of disease outbreaks (Ravager &038 Longing, 1985 Kurd &038 Hare, 2001 Kaplan, craft, &038 win, 2002, 2003 Bank, Gull, Kumar, Marathon, Cravings, Tutorial, &038 Wang, 2004 Craft, Win, &038 Wilkins, 2005). Further uses have included numerous academic, government, and practitioner publications on epidemiological, terrorism response, and homeland security and defense strategies (Deutsche, 1 963 Hoffman, 1981 Hugh &038 Selves, 2002 Ramirez-Marquee &038 Afar, 2009).Sample selective information We test our model and hypotheses using data put ined from a multi-step approach consisting of an investigate (a U. S. Department of Homeland certification training exercise called Measured receipt (MR. )) in conjunction with an intelligent agent-based dis computer pretense. We use this data to examine the across-the-board Dean and Sherman (1996) model and the associated hypotheses for variation in SAD process, choice, and effectiveness. We use a computational testation methodological approach to do this.This approach consists of ii steps 1) Using a validated survey instrument to demand data on strategy process and choice from a lab experiment with actual practitioners grouped into several response teams and 2) An intelligent agent-based pretension utilized in the exercise to produce data on the effectiveness of the groups SAD processes and response choices. We test our model and its hypotheses through empirical outline of a sub sample of 268 combined observations from the survey and simulation data collected from the exercise. Better 2010 5 Measured repartee Exercise. The MR. Homeland Security training exercise consisted of nine teams of military man agents comprised of three to five individuals severally (representing their actual functional responsibilities in most asses) to swindle the roles of the Departments of Homeland Security (DISH), Health and Human Services (DISH), and Transportation (EDT) at the local, state, and federal levels.These human agents operated In a Joint Operations concenter environment where they were able to execute a variety of decisions and respond interactively to changes in the delusive environment the rough the exercise. Simulation Model. The Measured reply training exercise utilizes a synthetic environment as the decision support system technology for the exercise. This system uses a dynamic virtual data processor simulation environment to simulate the outbreak ND dispersion of a biological agent on a mid-sized city in the coupled States.This outbreak affects tens of thousands of computer-based intelligent agents. These agents approximate the diversity of behavioral characteristics and demographics of the actua l modeled population for the city. Additionally, we utilized pathogen-specific data from the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in the simulation model to visualise the attack takes place in a naturalistic manner on the virtual population of intelligent agents. Further, the organizational aspects of the simulation model make up data from actual DISH and CDC response plans.The simulated scenario therefore replicates the actual characteristics Of a real-world attack in which the decommissioning process and response strategy choice can significantly affect outcomes in foothold of infection rate, infection spread, population death rate, and public irritability. Given these factors, these types of decision support system technologies offer a rich and dynamic simulation environment, which largely alleviates the common concerns previously associated with using simplistic homegrown or ready-made simulation tools in academic research (Linebacker et al. 2009 Mustachios &038 Susann, 2009 ). Specifically, our training exercise utilizes thousands of variant histrion decisions on a variety of teams, at multiple levels, which affect thousands of computerized agents who respond dynamically to the collective participant inputs, as well as individually Agnes response behavior to the inputs (See Structured, Meta, &038 ornerier, 2005 Harrison, Line, Carroll, &038 Carrey, 2007 for more detail on simulation role model).Additionally, conflicting criteria prevent exercise participants from gaming the system and drive the multiple measures of effectiveness. Thus these types of decision support system technologies offer the type of rich and powerful research technology littorals with a high degree Of external and essential validity as well as reliability required for integrated decision support (Lie et al. , 2009 Linebacker et al. , 2009 Mustachios &038 Susann, 2009). Measures Dependent variables. The dependent variable in our study consists of an integrated composite measure for decision effectiveness.This approach is consistent with recent research advocating integrated process and outcome measures for decision-making support system evaluation (Moral et al. , 2005 Phillips-Wren et al. , 2009). While the decision objective is to contain or comptroller the outbreak and minimize totalities, the need to maintain acceptable levels of public mood complicates this objective. Therefore the decision makers must consider the outcome of their decisions choices in scathe of containing the outbreak and impact on public mood.Examining The Implications Of ProcessTherefore a further contribution of this study is that we also seek to take into account this mediating role of choice on decision effectiveness. In this study we address several specific research questions 1) Does variation in the decision-making process result in variation in response choice 2) Does variation in response choice result in variation in decision effectiveness and 3) Can we also trace he eff ectiveness of different SAD processes as mediated through particular response choices?Since management can influence the SAD processes, question three is likely to be of more interest than question devil. However, if we only look at the direct relationship between SAD processes and effectiveness (I. E. , Dean &038 Sherman, 1 996), we might be attributing differences in effectiveness to process variation when these variations did not rattling influence choices. Thus, we need to adequately discern which SAD processes are more effective in these situations and produce the most effective outcomes.Addressing these questions helps to clarify the integrated influences of process and choice on strategic decision-making effectiveness. This paper proceeds as follows 1) We review related research on SAD, and leverage prior theory to develop hypotheses for an integrated process-choice-effectiveness SAD model 2) We examine the model and hypotheses through empirical analysis of data from a cris is response training exercise using an agent-based simulation decision support system technology 3) We present and discuss the results Of our analyses in relation to the model and hypotheses Copyright C 2010, GIG Global.Copying or distributing in print or electronic September 201 0 3 and 4) We conclude with a discussion of our findings along with implications for practitioners and future academic research. Theory development Prior work by Dean and Sherman (1 993, 1 996) offers an integrated decision-making model, for framing this study of SAD process-cooperativenesss. Their work examines the assumptions underlying the relationship between decision- making processes, response choices, and SAD effectiveness.The model proposes that variation in decision-making process (political or rational) will produce different espouse choices, which result in variation in SAD effectiveness. However, empirical testing of their model is limited to the relationship between political and rational decis ion-making processes and variation in effectiveness alone, excluding the intermediate response choice variable.As the potential mediating implications of the response choice intermediate variable are thereby unexamined, we extend and examine Dean and Chairmans (1996) model to clarify the conflicting arguments in the prior SAD literature. We do this through examining the full model with the inclusion of the mediating allegations of response choice through our application to an extreme decision-making context (crisis response).Our approach is as follows 1) We extend Dean and Chairmans (1996) strategic decision-making relationship and effectiveness model of variation in process, response choice, and effectiveness by expanding their effectiveness model to include the potential mediating effects of intermediate choices and 2) We then examine the competing arguments for process effectiveness in this context from Frederickson and Mitchell (1 984), Bourgeois and Eisenhower (1988), and Hart (1992).In Dean and Chairmans (1996) model variation in the strategic decision-making process (e. G. , Political or Rational approaches) produce variation in response choice, resulting in variation in effectiveness. The effectiveness outcomes therefore depend on the following 1 ) The strategic decision-making process utilized, and 2) The response strategy choices implemented.In order to clarify the conflicting dominant arguments in the literature for process effectiveness under uncertainty, as well as test the theorized mediating role of choice, we develop several base-line hypotheses to be ugly consistent with the previous literature. Replicating Dean and Chairmans (1996) model Hypothesis 1 Variation in strategic decommissioning process will be related to variation in effectiveness.Examining the sub elements of the implied Dean and Sherman (1996) model Hypothesis 2 Variation in strategic decommissioning process will be related to variation in response choice. Hypothesis 3 Variation in response choice will be related to variation in effectiveness. To examine the full model as proposed by Dean and Sherman (1 996), which proposes a mediating relationship but only examines the tumid relationship, we distinguish between the direct effect of SAD process on effectiveness (HI ) and a mediating relationship acting through response choice.Whereas, Dean and Chairmans (1996) original model has choice as endogenous to the strategic decision-making and effectiveness relationship, we model response choice as an intermediate step and consider this as an expansion of the strategy decision-making and effectiveness relationship. We therefore derive hypothesis 4 to examine whether response choice has both a mediating and direct effect Examining the full Dean and Sherman (1996) model Hypothesis 4 Variation in strategic decommissioning process and variation in response choice will be related to variation in effectiveness. Copyright 0 201 0, GIG Global.Copying or distributing in pr int or electronic 4 International Journal of Decision Support System Technology, 2(3), 1-15, July-September 201 0 To examine the conflict in the literature regarding the inconsistency among the Frederickson and Mitchell (1984) and Bourgeois and Eisenhower (1988) propositions for uncertain and high velocity environments, as well as the Hart (1992) propositions for effectiveness by type of decision-making process, we develop hypotheses AAA and b Hypothesis AAA In highly turbulent environments, Rational decision-making processes should be positively related to effectiveness, while Political decommissioning processes should not have a positive relationship with effectiveness (Bourgeois &038 Eisenhower, 1 988 Hart, 1992). Hypothesis b In highly turbulent environments, Rational decision-making processes should be negatively related to effectiveness, while Political decommissioning processes should have a positive relationship with effectiveness (Frederickson &038 Mitchell, 1984). Analytic al considerations Study context Crisis events (I. E. , natural disasters, terrorism, etc. Are environments characterized by varying levels of turbulence and ambiguity (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks, 2004). While government organizations differ from those in the private sector, research in the management field on SAD may be applicable to government organizations dealing with crisis events. For example, the core task of organizations is the creation and/or maintenance of a fit between the organizations internal strengths and capabilities and the demands placed on them by their environments. Government organizations must also draw upon unique resources and capabilities across various departments and levels of government to respond to challenges in their environments.Similarly, the levels of turbulence and ambiguity present in a government agency operating environment may also be direct contributors to the difficulties inherent to SAD in these contexts. The nature of the envi ronmental pressure, turbidity, and outcome implications make this a unique and challenging operating environment. Prior related work on this topic from other palm includes the development of homeland defense strategy for the White House (KUDUS, 2004), the modeling of disease outbreaks (Ravager &038 Longing, 1985 Kurd &038 Hare, 2001 Kaplan, craft, &038 win, 2002, 2003 Bank, Gull, Kumar, Marathon, Cravings, Tutorial, &038 Wang, 2004 Craft, Win, &038 Wilkins, 2005).Further uses have included numerous academic, government, and practitioner publications on epidemiological, terrorism response, and homeland security and defense strategies (Deutsche, 1 963 Hoffman, 1981 Hugh &038 Selves, 2002 Ramirez-Marquee &038 Afar, 2009). Sample data We test our model and hypotheses using data collected from a multi-step approach consisting of an experiment (a U. S. Department of Homeland Security training exercise called Measured Response (MR.)) in conjunction with an intelligent agent-based simulati on. We use this data to examine the lengthened Dean and Sherman (1996) model and the associated hypotheses for variation in SAD process, choice, and effectiveness. We use a computational experimentation methodological approach to do this.This approach consists of two steps 1) Using a validated survey instrument to collect data on strategy process and choice from a lab experiment with actual practitioners grouped into several response teams and 2) An intelligent agent-based simulation utilized in the exercise to produce data on the effectiveness of the groups SAD processes and response choices. We test Our model and its hypotheses through empirical analysis of a sub sample of 268 combined observations from the survey and simulation data collected from the exercise. Copyright C 201 0, GIG Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic September 2010 5 Measured Response Exercise.The MR. Homeland Security training exercise consisted of nine teams of human agents comprised of thr ee to five individuals each (representing their actual functional responsibilities in most asses) to play the roles of the Departments of Homeland Security (DISH), Health and Human Services (DISH), and Transportation (EDT) at the local, state, and federal levels. These human agents operated in a Joint Operations Center environment where they were able to execute a variety of decisions and respond interactively to changes in the simulated environment throughout the exercise. Simulation Model. The Measured Response training exercise utilizes a synthetic environment as the decision support system technology for the exercise. This system uses a dynamic virtual computer simulation environment to simulate the outbreak ND dispersion of a biological agent on a mid-sized city in the United States. This outbreak affects tens of thousands of computer-based intelligent agents.These agents approximate the diversity of behavioral characteristics and demographics of the actual modeled population f or the city. Additionally, we utilized pathogen-specific data from the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in the simulation model to ensure the attack takes place in a realistic manner on the virtual population of intelligent agents. Further, the organizational aspects of the simulation model incorporate data from actual DISH and CDC response plans. The simulated scenario therefore replicates the actual characteristics Of a real-world attack in which the decommissioning process and response strategy choice can significantly affect outcomes in terms of infection rate, contagion spread, population death rate, and public mood.Given these factors, these types of decision support system technologies offer a rich and dynamic simulation environment, which largely alleviates the common concerns previously associated with using simplistic homegrown or off-the-shelf simulation tools in academic research (Linebacker et al. , 2009 Mustachios &038 Susann, 2009). Specifically, our training exercis e utilizes thousands of different participant decisions on a variety of teams, at multiple levels, which affect thousands of computerized agents who respond dynamically to the collective participant inputs, as well as each agents response behavior to the inputs (See Structured, Meta, &038 ornerier, 2005 Harrison, Line, Carroll, &038 Carrey, 2007 for more detail on simulation modeling).